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) Example 3-28 has hit trouble because we re trying to provide an additional constructor, which initializes the properties to particular values If we write a constructor in a struct, the compiler refuses to let us invoke any methods until we ve initialized all the fields (It doesn t do the normal zero initialization for custom constructors) This restriction turns out to include properties, because get and set accessors are methods under the covers So C# won t let us use our properties until the underlying fields have been initialized, and we can t do that because these are auto properties the C# compiler has generated hidden fields that we can only access through the properties This is a bit of a chicken-and-egg bootstrapping problem! Fortunately, C# gives us a way of calling one of our constructors from another.

We can use this to call the default constructor to do the initialization; then our constructor can set the properties to whatever values it wishes We call the constructor using the this keyword, and the standard function calling syntax with any arguments enclosed in parentheses As Example 3-29 shows, we can invoke the default constructor with an empty argument list..

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Why aren t we allowed to define a custom default constructor for a value type, given that we re allowed to do that for a reference type The short answer is that the specification for the relevant behavior in the .NET Framework doesn t let you. (The specification in question is called the Common Language Infrastructure [CLI], incidentally.) The slightly longer answer is: for efficiency reasons. By mandating that the default constructor for any value type always initializes everything to zero, large arrays of value types can be constructed very cheaply, just by allocating the required amount of memory and zeroing out the whole array in one step. And similarly, it simplifies the initialization of fields and variables everything can be initialized to zero.

public PolarPoint3D(double distance, double angle, double altitude) : this() { Distance = distance; Angle = angle; Altitude = altitude; }

Instead, message authentication codes (MACs) are typically used to achieve message integrity in real-world security protocols. A MAC is not only a function of the message itself, but is also a function of a key known only to Alice and Bob, such that even if Mallory is able to modify the bytes of a message, she will not be able to appropriately modify the corresponding MAC. (MACs are covered in more detail in 15.) While the goal in confidentiality is to make sure that the contents of Alice and Bob s communication cannot be understood by a third party like Eve or Mallory, there is no such requirement for message integrity. For message integrity to be achieved, it does not matter whether the eavesdropper can see the data in the message so long as she is unable to change it undetected. The goal of message integrity is to make sure that even if Mallory can look, she cannot touch the contents of the message.

You add the call just before the opening brace for the body of the constructor, and prefix it with a colon. We can also use this technique to avoid writing common initialization code multiple times. Say we wanted to provide another utility constructor that just took the polar coordinates, and initialized the altitude to zero by default. Instead of repeating all the code from the first constructor, we could just add this extra constructor to our definition for PolarPoint3D, as shown in Example 3-30.

public PolarPoint3D(double distance, double angle) : this(distance, angle, 0) { } public PolarPoint3D( double distance, double angle, double altitude) : this() { Distance = distance; Angle = angle; Altitude = altitude; }

Incidentally, this syntax for calling one constructor from another works equally well in classes, and is a great way of avoiding code duplication.

You should be careful of adding too many constructors to a class or struct. It is easy to lose track of which parameters are which, or to make arbitrary choices about which constructors you provide and which you don t. For example, let s say we wanted to add yet another constructor to PolarPoint3D that lets callers pass just the angle and altitude, initializing the distance to a default of zero, as Example 3-31 shows.

public PolarPoint3D( double altitude, double angle ) : this( 0, angle, altitude ) { }

While authentication and authorization are important, accountability is another key security goal (especially for a company s internal systems) The goal of accountability is to ensure that you are able to determine who the attacker or principal is in the case that something goes wrong or an erroneous transaction is identified In the case of a malicious incident, you want to be able to prosecute and prove that the attacker conducted illegitimate actions In the case of an erroneous transaction, you want to identify which principal made the mistake Most computer systems achieve accountability through authentication and the use of logging and audit trails To obtain accountability, you can have a system write log entries every time a user authenticates, and use the log to keep a list of all the actions that the user conducted.

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